Cambridge University Drugs Study
bbc.co.uk wrote:
Cambridge University is to pay drug users to take part in a medical trial.
Scientists have advertised for cocaine, crack-cocaine and amphetamine users to carry out research on the effects of certain chemicals on the brain.
Cambridgeshire Police said it could see no legal issues arising out of the advertisement or the research.
The university said issues surrounding the trial including drug users spending their "compensation" on illegal drugs had been carefully thought through.
Researchers, who have placed an advertisement in a local newspaper, said drug users would be "compensated for their time and inconvenience" and paid their travel expenses.
Det Ch Insp Gary Ridgway of Cambridgeshire Police said: "The police recognise that any research leading to a greater understanding of the effects of drug misuse is useful."
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/6576461.stm
What they want to change the drug classification to!
*Sorry would post this in the Drug Forum but its blocked on my work PC*
Scientist's say they want the current drug classification to be changed, They want to have a scale done on how harmful these drugs are. This study was published in the Lancet (woop i work for them so i am gonna have a good read), it is also mentioned on the BBC news website http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6474053.stm although its not as indepth as the Lancet study.
This is the scale as they have set it, what i love is good ol Acid and E's are lower than solvents, tobacco and alcohol!
Quote:
The researchers said the current ABC system was too arbitrary, and failed to give specific information about the relative risks of each drug. It also gave too much importance to unusual reactions, which would only affect a tiny number of users.
Professor Nutt said people were not deterred by scare messages, which simply served to undermine trust in warnings about the danger of drugs.
He said: "The current system is not fit for purpose. Let's treat people as adults. We should have a much more considered debate how we deal with dangerous drugs."
He highlighted the fact that one person a week in the UK dies from alcohol poisoning, while less than 10 deaths a year are linked to ecstasy use.
It would be nice to think our government would treat us as adults and let us take informed decisions, but we all know that this is never going to happen.
Well i am gonna sit and have a read of the full article written in the Lancet, it is accessable on their website but it aint free.....
Do not demonise drugs Mmmmm
Quote:
A major new report on the fight against illegal drugs in Britain says many are "harmless" and should no longer be "demonised".
The two-year study has urged a radical re-think in policy and found that current legislation is a failure, hopelessly out of date, and in parts irrelevant.
And it warns that policy is too often made on the basis of panic, political point-scoring and misplaced moral outrage, instead of pragmatic assessment of what really works.
It says it should be recognised that drinking and smoking can cause more harm.
And it calls for the main focus of drugs education to shift from secondary to primary schools and recommends the introduction of so-called "shooting galleries" - rooms where users can inject drugs.
It argues that Britain's drugs problem should be treated predominantly as a medical, rather than a criminal, issue.
The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce http://www.rsa.org.uk/projects/drugs.asp also urges a rethink in the way in which drug treatment is offered.
It says future policy should be aimed at minimising the harm from drug use, rather than attempting the impossible task of eradicating drug use itself.
It says it is "illogical, expensive and inefficient" to offer treatment primarily to those found to be using drugs when they have committed a crime.
Report author Steve Rossell said steps needed to be taken "to avoid the swings between taking a criminal justice agenda line and a public health line and get a broad-based approach to actually tackling drug use".
Jackie Squibb is a recovering addict who agrees that criminalising drug takers does little to help them beat their addiction.
" I had a little girl, and when you start using crack and heroin, nothing seems to matter," she said.
"All the problems and everything that you've got, and all the troubles... just the way you feel, you can just block everything out by using that kind of drug.
"And that's what happened for me. It just took all my pain away."
But Iain Duncan Smith, chair of the Conservative Social Justice Policy Group, called the report "worryingly complacent" and accused the authors of "not doing their homework".
The RSA Commission report urges an acceptance that drugs are a fact of life. Some four million people use at least one illicit drug each year, according to Home Office figures.
http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30100-1254761,00.html
non-drug users needed for UCL study Hi,
You may have seen my other threads asking for people who use ketamine to volunteer for my thesis...
I am now looking for people who have never used drugs - as one of the control groups.
I am also looking for people who use drugs but do not use ketamine - as one of the control groups.
If you fit one of these groups and are interested in helping us understand more about the effects of ketamine please read the info below, PM or email (justin.grayer@ucl.ac.uk) me.
Thank you,
Justin
Hi,
I'm doing my Doctorate in Clinical Psychology at University College London (UCL), and my thesis is investigating the effects of ketamine on mental processing and personal experiences. I have been given permission by the administrators of this forum to post messages to see if any one would like to take part in the study. Before I continue, I would like to apologise in advance for any offence that may be caused by using your forum in this way. I also want to emphasise that this study is not being run by drug/pharmaceutical companies.
I am looking for people to participate who fall into either of these two groups:
1. Ketamine users (as well as other drugs) who use ketamine at least twice/month, for at least 1yr
2. Other drug users (EXcluding ketamine use) using drugs at least twice/month, for at least 1yr
3. Non-drug users (past and present)
The study takes about 1.5 - 2 hours, and comprises computer based tasks, as well as some pen and paper questionnaires, a drug history and a urine sample. (Participants will not be given drugs at the time of testing.) Your confidentiality will be assured.
In exchange for your time you will be paid £15.
Ideally, the study will take place at University College London (off Tottenham Court Road). However, if necessary I can meet people elsewhere. Testing can take place at pretty much anytime - week days and evenings, and weekends.
If you are interested and would like to know more please let me know, either on this forum or through a private message.
Thank you for reading.
Justin Grayer
Trainee Clinical Psychologist
Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
Justin GrayerView Public ProfileSend a private message to Justin GrayerSend email to Justin GrayerVisit Justin Grayer's homepage!Find all posts by Justin GrayerAdd Buddy
Contacting Justin Grayer
#33
13-09-2006, 03:47 PM
mrindeed vbmenu_register("postmenu_76455", true);
Registered User
Worthwhile Scientific Study OR Dangerous Experiment?? Giant machine to recreate conditions of big bang
Collider may create miniature black holes
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/story/0,,1952288,00.html
Seems they are a bit unsure exactly what will happen.12
Non-drug users and non-k drug users – UCL thesis Hi,
You may have seen my other threads asking for people who use ketamine to volunteer for my thesis...
I am now looking for people who have never used drugs - as one of the control groups.
I am also looking for people who use drugs but do not use ketamine - as one of the control groups.
If you fit one of these groups and are interested in helping us understand more about the effects of ketamine please PM or email (justin.grayer@ucl.ac.uk) me.
Thank you,
Justin
non ketamine users, and non drug users needed for UCL study Hi,
You may have seen my other threads asking for people who use ketamine to volunteer for my thesis...
I am now looking for people who have never used drugs - as one of the control groups.
I am also looking for people who use drugs but do not use ketamine - as one of the control groups.
If you fit one of these groups and are interested in helping us understand more about the effects of ketamine please read the info below, PM or email (justin.grayer@ucl.ac.uk) me.
Thank you,
Justin
Hi,
I'm doing my Doctorate in Clinical Psychology at University College London (UCL), and my thesis is investigating the effects of ketamine on mental processing and personal experiences. I have been given permission by the administrators of this forum to post messages to see if any one would like to take part in the study. Before I continue, I would like to apologise in advance for any offence that may be caused by using your forum in this way. I also want to emphasise that this study is not being run by drug/pharmaceutical companies.
I am looking for people to participate who fall into either of these two groups:
1. Ketamine users (as well as other drugs) who use ketamine at least twice/month, for at least 1yr
2. Other drug users (EXcluding ketamine use) using drugs at least twice/month, for at least 1yr
3. Non-drug users (past and present)
The study takes about 1.5 - 2 hours, and comprises computer based tasks, as well as some pen and paper questionnaires, a drug history and a urine sample. (Participants will not be given drugs at the time of testing.) Your confidentiality will be assured.
In exchange for your time you will be paid £15.
Ideally, the study will take place at University College London (off Tottenham Court Road). However, if necessary I can meet people elsewhere. Testing can take place at pretty much anytime - week days and evenings, and weekends.
If you are interested and would like to know more please let me know, either on this forum or through a private message.
Thank you for reading.
Justin Grayer
Trainee Clinical Psychologist
Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
Ketamine study From: "Justin Grayer"
To:
Sent: Friday, August 04, 2006 1:51 PM
Subject: Re: Action Required to Activate Membership for Party Vibe
> Hi,
>
> Websites that also agreed are Squatjuice, Psy-forum, and Harderfaster.
>
> Best Wishes,
>
> Justin
>
>
> Quoting submit@partyvibe.com:
>
> > Justin,
> >
> > Thanks for letting me know, what other sites are taking part?
> >
> > > >
> > On Fri, Aug 04, 2006 at 12:06:23PM +0100, Justin Grayer wrote:
> >> Hi,
> >>
> >> Just to let you know that I will start posting messages about my
> >> ketamine thesis
> >> study either this afternoon or next Wednesday.
> >>
> >> Best Wishes,
> >>
> >> Justin Grayer
> >> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >> Quoting submit@partyvibe.com:
> >>
> >> >Justin,
> >> >
> >> >I'm very open to this kind of research. You're welcome to include us
> >> >in your study. Regarding other websites I would suggest asking
> >> >our members...
> >> >
> >> >
> >> >
> >> >On Wed, Jul 19, 2006 at 04:13:26PM +0100, Justin Grayer wrote:
> >> >>Hi Administrators,
> >> >>
> >> >>I'm a Clinical Psychology Trainee at University College London (UCL) and
> >> >>I'm
> >> >>doing my thesis research project on the impact of recreational ketamine
> >> >>use
> >> >>on
> >> >>mental processing and personal experiences. This might sound familiar to
> >> >>you
> >> >>as it is connected to another project that is being run by the
> >> >>Psychopharmacology Unit at UCL - Huw Rees has posted messages on different
> >> >>websites (although not necessarily yours).
> >> >>
> >> >>Huw suggested I contact you to check whether it is alright for me to post
> >> >>messages about the study I am working on, to see if anybody wants to
> >> >>take part.
> >> >>It would involve spending approx. 1.5 hours doing a combination of
> >> >>computer-based tasks and paper based questionnaires, as well as providing
> >> >>me
> >> >>with some information on their drug using history, and a urine sample.
> >> >>The
> >> >>reason for
> >> >>taking a urine sample is to objectively test for traces of substances, so
> >> >>that
> >> >>we can compare this to other groups that we also need to recruit (the
> >> >>study
> >> >>compares users of ketamine and other drugs, with non-ketamine drug users,
> >> >>and
> >> >>non-drug users). Anyone involved will be paid ?15 for their time and
> >> >>inconvenience (which is more than stated on the attached Information
> >> >>Sheet). It
> >> >>is hoped that people will be able to come to the
> >> >>Sub-Department of Clinical Health Psychology at UCL (to keep procedures
> >> >>standardised), however, I can meet people at their home if necessary.
> >> >>
> >> >>I have attached the Participant Information Sheet and the Consent Sheet,
> >> >>along
> >> >>with a PDF of the Ethics form - I hope that this will answer any
> >> >>questions that
> >> >>you might have, as well as demonstrating to you that this is a genuine
> >> >>request -
> >> >>three years of my work is at stake!
> >> >>
> >> >>If you want to contact Huw to verify who I am his email address is
> >> >>h.rees@ucl.ac.uk. Additionally, you can contact one of the Doctorate of
> >> >>Clinical Psychology course administrators, whose details are on (click on
> >> >>'contact us')
> >> >>
> >> >>http://www.ucl.ac.uk/clinical-health-psychology/
> >> >>
> >> >>I hope that it will be alright for me to post messages on your website,
> >> >>however
> >> >>I understand if you have reservations - if you do, please feel free to
> >> >>contact
> >> >>me, either via email or on 07779 005 810 (the number on the Information
> >> >>Sheet
> >> >>is a main department number, but I'm not really there over the summer).
> >> >>
> >> >>I'd also be grateful if you could suggest any other websites (or other
> >> >>medias)
> >> >>that I might be able to try (I'm in the process of contacting Urban75, and
> >> >>Squatjuice).
> >> >>
> >> >>Regards,
> >> >>
> >> >>Justin Grayer
> >> >>Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> >>Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> >>1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>Quoting Party Vibe :
> >> >>
> >> >>>Justin Grayer,
> >> >>>
> >> >>>Welcome and thanks for joining!
> >> >>>
> >> >>>To complete your registration visit this address:
> >> >>>
> >> >>>http://www.partyvibe.com/vbulletin/register.php?a=act&u=8808&i=82684122
> >> >>>
> >> >>>If it fails try this one instead:
> >> >>>
> >> >>>http://www.partyvibe.com/vbulletin/register.php?a=ver
> >> >>>
> >> >>>Your Username is: Justin Grayer
> >> >>>Your Activation ID is: 82684122
> >> >>>
> >> >>>If you are still having problems drop us a line at submit@partyvibe.com
> >> >>>
> >> >>>All the best,
> >> >>>
> >> >>>partyvibe.com
> >> >>>
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>
> >> >>Justin Grayer
> >> >>Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> >>Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> >>1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >> >
> >> >
> >> >
> >> >
> >> >
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >> Justin Grayer
> >> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >
>
>
>
> Justin Grayer
> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
Ketamine study request From: "Justin Grayer"
To:
Sent: Wednesday, July 19, 2006 5:52 PM
Subject: Re: Action Required to Activate Membership for Party Vibe
> Dear Hugh,
>
> Thanks very much for your quick response, and for giving me the go
> ahead. I'll
> probably post something on one of the boards sometime next week - I'll let you
> know when I do this.
>
> If you have any questions or feedback at any point please let me know.
>
> Best Wishes,
>
> Justin
>
> Quoting submit@partyvibe.com:
>
> > Justin,
> >
> > I'm very open to this kind of research. You're welcome to include us
> > in your study. Regarding other websites I would suggest asking
> > our members...
> >
> > hugh
> >
> > On Wed, Jul 19, 2006 at 04:13:26PM +0100, Justin Grayer wrote:
> >> Hi Administrators,
> >>
> >> I'm a Clinical Psychology Trainee at University College London (UCL) and I'm
> >> doing my thesis research project on the impact of recreational ketamine use
> >> on
> >> mental processing and personal experiences. This might sound familiar to
> >> you
> >> as it is connected to another project that is being run by the
> >> Psychopharmacology Unit at UCL - Huw Rees has posted messages on different
> >> websites (although not necessarily yours).
> >>
> >> Huw suggested I contact you to check whether it is alright for me to post
> >> messages about the study I am working on, to see if anybody wants to
> >> take part.
> >> It would involve spending approx. 1.5 hours doing a combination of
> >> computer-based tasks and paper based questionnaires, as well as providing me
> >> with some information on their drug using history, and a urine sample. The
> >> reason for
> >> taking a urine sample is to objectively test for traces of substances, so
> >> that
> >> we can compare this to other groups that we also need to recruit (the study
> >> compares users of ketamine and other drugs, with non-ketamine drug users,
> >> and
> >> non-drug users). Anyone involved will be paid ?15 for their time and
> >> inconvenience (which is more than stated on the attached Information
> >> Sheet). It
> >> is hoped that people will be able to come to the
> >> Sub-Department of Clinical Health Psychology at UCL (to keep procedures
> >> standardised), however, I can meet people at their home if necessary.
> >>
> >> I have attached the Participant Information Sheet and the Consent Sheet,
> >> along
> >> with a PDF of the Ethics form - I hope that this will answer any
> >> questions that
> >> you might have, as well as demonstrating to you that this is a genuine
> >> request -
> >> three years of my work is at stake!
> >>
> >> If you want to contact Huw to verify who I am his email address is
> >> h.rees@ucl.ac.uk. Additionally, you can contact one of the Doctorate of
> >> Clinical Psychology course administrators, whose details are on (click on
> >> 'contact us')
> >>
> >> http://www.ucl.ac.uk/clinical-health-psychology/
> >>
> >> I hope that it will be alright for me to post messages on your website,
> >> however
> >> I understand if you have reservations - if you do, please feel free to
> >> contact
> >> me, either via email or on 07779 005 810 (the number on the Information
> >> Sheet
> >> is a main department number, but I'm not really there over the summer).
> >>
> >> I'd also be grateful if you could suggest any other websites (or other
> >> medias)
> >> that I might be able to try (I'm in the process of contacting Urban75, and
> >> Squatjuice).
> >>
> >> Regards,
> >>
> >> Justin Grayer
> >> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >> Quoting Party Vibe :
> >>
> >> >Justin Grayer,
> >> >
> >> >Welcome and thanks for joining!
> >> >
> >> >To complete your registration visit this address:
> >> >
> >> >http://www.partyvibe.com/vbulletin/register.php?a=act&u=8808&i=82684122
> >> >
> >> >If it fails try this one instead:
> >> >
> >> >http://www.partyvibe.com/vbulletin/register.php?a=ver
> >> >
> >> >Your Username is: Justin Grayer
> >> >Your Activation ID is: 82684122
> >> >
> >> >If you are still having problems drop us a line at submit@partyvibe.com
> >> >
> >> >All the best,
> >> >
> >> >partyvibe.com
> >> >
> >>
> >>
> >>
> >> Justin Grayer
> >> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> >> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> >> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
> >
> >
> >
> >
> >
>
>
>
> Justin Grayer
> Trainee Clinical Psychologist
> Sub department of Clinical Health Psychology, UCL,
> 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 6BT
[Action Alert] Cut Drug War Waste to Pay for Hurricane Relief Published: Tue, 11 Oct 2005 16:32:54 EST
Are you tired of the government spending your money on all those anti-marijuana TV ads that don't work? You know, the ones that claim that drug users are terrorists, and that smoking marijuana will make you crazy, get you pregnant, and cause you to shoot your neighbor.
You can help us cut those anti-marijuana ads this year.
But don't stop there. You can also help us cut funding to the Andean Counter-Drug Initiative (formerly known as "Plan Colombia"), which is devastating Colombia and destroying the environment.
And help us cut the federal Byrne grant program, which is financing out-of-control anti-drug task forces like the ones we've told you about in Tulia, Texas and Flint, Michigan.
These are just three examples of wasteful, harmful drug war programs that Congress could cut to pay for hurricane relief efforts. Eliminating these programs would save $1.6 billion this year alone.
Tell Congress to save money by cutting drug war waste.
You have probably already read in the news that members of Congress are debating how to pay for relief efforts. We know what would be a good start: stop wasting money on the failed war on drugs. Imagine how much money would be saved if the government simply stopped arresting people for marijuana, and stopped raiding raves and other peaceful electronic music events.
And what if instead of incarcerating people with substance abuse problems, we provided them with drug treatment? California voters approved our treatment-instead-of-incarceration initiative in 2000 and taxpayers have already saved more than a billion dollars. That's just one state, and one reform.
You may recall that we have already been successful in cutting federal drug war waste. Congress has cut funding to the anti-marijuana ads and the Byrne grant program for two years in a row. Last year we were able to slash funding for Bush's student drug testing program in half.
Now, we're working to cut wasteful drug war spending even more. As just one example of why we think we will be successful, the Republican Study Committee (a caucus of more than 100 conservative House Republicans) recently suggested completely eliminating several drug war programs, including those ridiculous anti-marijuana ads. By working with them, as well as with progressive Democrats, we can make these cuts happen.
But we need you to contact Congress, and then forward this alert to your friends.
Take action now!
Also, if you haven't become a dues-paying member of the Drug Policy Alliance, please consider doing so. As the old saying goes, "There's strength in numbers." Help strengthen the opposition to drug war waste by becoming a member here.
Finally, we hope to have some exciting news to report next week. So stay tuned!
Read More...
Es selling for 50p http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4205464.stm
Ecstasy pills sell for 50p each
Ecstasy pills can be bought for as little as 50p each in some parts of Britain, according to a study by leading charity Drugscope.
The price has halved in 12 months, according to its survey of prices in 15 towns and cities.
The veterinary anaesthetic ketamine was found for sale in eight of those.
It did not feature at all in the same survey last year. The drug is legal to possess - but the government intends to make it class C before the end of 2005.
Worrying trend
Spokeswoman for Drugscope, Petra Maxwell, said its findings highlighted a worrying trend:
"It [ketamine] is a drug that is very easy to take a higher dosage than is intended, even for experienced users.
"You can get some unpleasant side effects, nausea, vomiting, and at the highest doses people can collapse and lose consciousness," she said.
Ketamine is a general anaesthetic which has been used in hospitals and in veterinary medicine since the 1970s.
Among recreational users it is also known as K or Special K and can be in powder, tablet or liquid form.
Effects depend on the dose but users report euphoria, hallucinations and "dissociative" feelings in which mind and body seem to separate.
It can be dangerous when taken in conjunction with alcohol or other depressants and users can be unable to move or feel pain while on the drug.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that ketamine use has been gradually increasing for several years but it has only recently become popular.
"Ketamine has now established its place alongside the usual dance scene drugs like ecstasy," said one Nottingham drugs worker.
Crack deals
The DrugScope survey - in which researchers spoke to 40 frontline drugs agencies in a range of places from Glasgow to Torquay - also found new trends in the way drugs are sold.
One common development is heroin and crack being sold together in "two for one" or other discounted deals. :sick:
And in Portsmouth the price of heroin has halved in the past year, a move accompanied by dealers advertising their wares with calling cards placed near needle exchanges.
Jason Roberts, a drugs project worker in the city, said: "We have seen a huge increase in clients [drug users] over the last 12 months.
"Portsmouth is a lovely city and there is not that much crime, but the drugs problem is massive."
Regional differences
However, the place with the cheapest heroin was Sheffield at £25 a gram.
The survey also highlights regional differences such as the fact that crack is rarely sold in Belfast and Glasgow.
Users in these cities prefer to buy cocaine powder and convert it to crack themselves, according to drugs workers on the ground.
"We are seeing significant regional variations in both drug usage and drug markets," said Harry Shapiro, editor of Druglink magazine which published the survey.
"The emergence of ketamine as a key substance of choice is and entirely new phenomenon since we last carried out the survey in 2004 when it didn't figure at all."
A Home Office spokeswoman confirmed ministers had committed to making ketamine a class C drug, alongside cannabis, by the end of this year.
DrugScope is an independent body which aims to provide expert information on drugs and to inform policy development.
ecstacy trials for squaddies at long last the stigma of using a drug that is used recreationally has been lifted allowing some sensible trials into possible health benefits
http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1416073,00.html
Ecstasy trials for combat stress
American soldiers traumatised by fighting in Iraq and Afghanistan are to be offered the drug ecstasy to help free them of flashbacks and recurring nightmares.
The US food and drug administration has given the go-ahead for the soldiers to be included in an experiment to see if MDMA, the active ingredient in ecstasy, can treat post-traumatic stress disorder.
Scientists behind the trial in South Carolina think the feelings of emotional closeness reported by those taking the drug could help the soldiers talk about their experiences to therapists. Several victims of rape and sexual abuse with post-traumatic stress disorder, for whom existing treatments are ineffective, have been given MDMA since the research began last year.
Michael Mithoefer, the psychiatrist leading the trial, said: "It's looking very promising. It's too early to draw any conclusions but in these treatment-resistant people so far the results are encouraging.
"People are able to connect more deeply on an emotional level with the fact they are safe now."
He is about to advertise for war veterans who fought in the last five years to join the study.
According to the US national centre for post-traumatic stress disorder, up to 30% of combat veterans suffer from the condition at some point in their lives.
Known as shell shock during the first world war and combat fatigue in the second, the condition is characterised by intrusive memories, panic attacks and the avoidance of situations which might force sufferers to relive their wartime experiences.
Dr Mithoefer said the MDMA helped people discuss traumatic situations without triggering anxiety.
"It appears to act as a catalyst to help people move through whatever's been blocking their success in therapy."
The existing drug-assisted therapy sessions last up to eight hours, during music is played. The patients swallow a capsule containing a placebo or 125mg of MDMA - about the same or a little more than a typical ecstasy tablet.
Psychologists assess the patients before and after the trial to judge whether the drug has helped.
The study has provoked controversy, because significant doubts remain about the long-term risks of ecstasy.
Animal studies suggest that it lowers levels of the brain chemical serotonin, and some politicians and anti-drug campaigners have argued that research into possible medical benefits of illegal drugs presents a falsely reassuring message.
The South Carolina study marks a resurgence of interest in the use of controlled psychedelic and hallucinogenic drugs. Several studies in the US are planned or are under way to investigate whether MDMA, LSD and psilocybin, the active ingredient in magic mushrooms, can treat conditions ranging from obsessive compulsive disorder to anxiety in terminal cancer patients.
dea.gov: THE EVOLUTION OF THE DRUG THREAT: THE 1980’S THROUGH 2002 http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/02046/02046.html
The illicit drug trade in the United States is affected by numerous factors, including consumer demand, sources of supply, the organizational strengths and adaptability of criminal groups, and the ability of law enforcement and interdiction assets to disrupt or dismantle drug distribution systems. Identifying the most significant drug threats to the United States requires the fusion of current intelligence with a historical perspective to fully assess the dynamics of the illicit drug trade.
This report identifies the most significant changes in the drug threat over the past twenty years, as identified in past issues of the National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee Report (NNICC). The first part of the report serves as a historical foundation for a current drug threat assessment, and offers a perspective on the dynamics that will affect the drug threats facing the United States in the near future. The second part of the report provides a summary of the most significant factors shaping the distribution of illicit drugs.
The first-level evaluation of the current drug threat assessment was derived from field division assessments, open-source reports, drug abuse indicators, and reports from the El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC) and Joint Interagency Task Force East. The second-level evaluation involved a survey of Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) field managers who precisely identified the most significant drug problems in the field divisions, and the factors that affected those priorities, such as levels of violence associated with the trade, abuse indicators, and the volume of drugs moved. Rather than a comprehensive study of the drug trade, this report provides a snapshot of a highly dynamic criminal environment, and the challenges facing U.S. intelligence and enforcement agencies.
The 1980's: A Radical Transformation of the Consumer Market
The single most important transformation of the U.S. illicit drug market in the 1980s was the rampant growth of cocaine trafficking and abuse. Fed by the perception that the drug was a benign stimulant, cocaine trafficking and abuse radically transformed the illicit drug environment. The ready supply of cocaine virtually replaced the demand for the synthetic drug, phencyclidine, or PCP. The introduction of crack cocaine, an easily obtained form of smokeable cocaine, increased demand and fueled violent gang wars between rival suppliers.
Although Bolivia and Peru were the largest coca and cocaine base producers, Colombian traffickers dominated the final production of cocaine hydrochloride. Colombian sources supplied at least 50 percent of the cocaine smuggled to the United States, with Colombian distribution organizations firmly entrenched in South Florida. The Caribbean remained the primary cocaine smuggling corridor, utilizing maritime and air smuggling routes through The Bahamas.
Southwest Asia was the primary source of heroin to the United States, supplying approximately 60 percent of the U.S. heroin market. Pakistan was the largest and most accessible heroin producer in the region. Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan was severely disrupted as a result of the fighting between Soviet forces and the Mujahedeen; however, because interdiction efforts in the country were primarily directed at controlling the flow of weapons to Afghan guerillas, heroin exports continued, albeit at a reduced level. Mexican heroin continued to supply the western United States, although enforcement actions by the Mexican Government severely disrupted heroin sources.
Colombia was the primary source of foreign-produced marijuana in the United States, supplying approximately 80 percent of the marijuana smuggled into the United States. Mexico and Jamaica supplied the balance of the foreign-produced marijuana, with domestic production supplying less than 10 percent of the market. Most of the marijuana from Colombia was smuggled through the Caribbean corridor, using maritime conveyances.
The production and trafficking of synthetic drugs was relatively limited in the 1980s. Domestic clandestine laboratories supplied nearly all of the available synthetic drugs in the United States, with the exception of diverted pharmaceuticals. In 1980, Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) Emergency Room data identified diazepam (Valium) as the most frequently cited cause for admission. Although the majority of clandestine laboratories in the United States produced methamphetamine, PCP was the only clandestinely produced drug that was identified as a significant problem in DAWN Emergency Room data. Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), such as the Hells Angels, the Bandidos, the Outlaws, and the Pagans, dominated the production and trafficking of methamphetamine, as well as marijuana distribution. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) made a comeback in the early 1980s; however, its abuse was limited primarily to California and larger urban areas in the East and Midwest.
The 1980s demonstrated the increasing power of drug trafficking organizations to disrupt civil governance of the cocaine-producing regions. The July 1980 coup in Bolivia, led by Garcia Meza and reportedly backed by the “Santa Cruz Cocaine Mafia,” severely undermined drug control efforts in the country. In 1981, the Colombian paramilitary group M-19 kidnapped Martha Nieves Ochoa, the sister of Medellín cartel head Jorge Luis Ochoa. The cartel responded by organizing a death squad that methodically killed guerillas and their families until Nieves was released. The cartel further directed its squads against journalists and political leaders in an effort to force the repeal of Colombia’s extradition treaty with the United States. In one of the more violent acts of the decade, 95 people, including 12 members of the Colombian Supreme Court, were killed when 42 members of M-19 seized the Palace of Justice in Bogota in 1985. In a common cause with the cartel, M-19 demanded the repeal of the extradition treaty.
The 1980s witnessed substantial changes in the law enforcement and security resources directed against drug trafficking. The resources of the Central Intelligence Agency were brought into the counternarcotics mission by Executive Order in 1982. In 1986, National Security Decision Directive 221 articulated the policy that, “The international drug trade threatens the security of the United States by potentially destabilizing democratic allies.” United States military assets were formally directed to provide support to the counternarcotic mission under the National Defense Authorization Act of 1989.
The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 authorized the Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) to designate regions of the United States as “high intensity drug trafficking areas” (HIDTAs). The diversity of the drug trafficking threat was reflected in the geographic diversity of the initial five HIDTAs: the cities of New York, Los Angeles, Miami, and Houston, as well as the Southwest border (all counties along the United States–Mexico border from San Diego to Brownsville, Texas.
1990's: Supply Shifts
During the 1990s, Mexico emerged as the most significant transshipment corridor for illicit drugs smuggled into the United States. Although cocaine continued to move through the Caribbean corridor, increased radar coverage from Aerostats along the Southeast coast deterred the use of aircraft flights directly to the United States. Traffickers thwarted the increased radar surveillance by combining drug airdrops with high-speed boats operating beyond the range of the new systems. The increased law enforcement and military presence in the Caribbean forced traffickers to explore more elaborate smuggling avenues, including the purchase of Soviet cargo aircraft; a surplus Soviet diesel submarine; and experimentation with semi-submersible vehicles.
Colombian traffickers increasingly relied upon Mexican and Dominican trafficking organizations to smuggle cocaine shipments to the United States. By the mid-1990s, Colombian organizations started paying Mexican transportation organizations with portions of the smuggled cocaine load, with up to half of the load provided to the transporters. This arrangement reduced the need for large financial transactions, and firmly established Mexico-based drug trafficking organizations as significant illicit drug wholesalers in the United States. The Central American corridor was increasingly used for air and overland cocaine shipments to Mexico. Aircraft were used to move cocaine from Colombia to Northern Mexico. Although smaller, twin-engine aircraft were most often used to smuggle cocaine, larger surplus jet aircraft were also used to transport multiton quantities of cocaine.
Drug-related violence continued to undermine government control in South America. Over 150 groups loosely organized in cartels operating out of Medellín and Bogota, dominated the cocaine trade. Colombian insurgent groups such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Army of National Liberation (ELN) also benefited from the cocaine trade by taxing narcotics profits; protecting crops, laboratories, and storage facilities; and occasionally extracting payment in weapons. Insurgent groups also carried out kidnappings and terrorism in support of traffickers’ aims.
By 1988, Southeast Asian (SEA) heroin dominated the East Coast heroin market, while Mexican heroin was supplied to users in the Western United States. New York was the primary importation and distribution center for SEA heroin, with San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington also identified as points of entry. SEA heroin continued to dominate the market throughout the early 1990s, all but replacing Southwest Asian heroin. In 1994, however, a joint Royal Thai Government/DEA endeavor—Operation TIGER TRAP—led to the incarceration in Thailand and extradition to the United States of more than a dozen high-level violators who had played key roles in moving SEA heroin to the United States. These successful actions disrupted long-standing SEA heroin trafficking modus operandi, not only in Asia, but also in the United States.
Expanded opium poppy cultivation and heroin production in Colombia in the early 1990s allowed Colombian traffickers to fill the void created by the decreased flow of SEA heroin to east coast markets. During the mid-to-late 1990s, Colombian heroin traffickers easily undermined the SEA heroin market with a readily available supply of high-quality, low-priced white heroin. They also undercut their competitors’ price and used established, effective drug distribution networks to facilitate supply. Since Colombian heroin, often sold on the street with a purity of 90 percent, can be snorted like cocaine, it avoided the stigma of needle usage; thus, Colombian traffickers had a built-in marketing advantage over traffickers from Southeast or Southwest Asia. Throughout the 1990s, Mexico-supplied heroin continued to dominate user preferences in the Western United States.
By 1990, Mexico was the largest supplier of marijuana to the United States. According to the National Household Survey, the number of then current marijuana users (any use within the past 30 days) decreased from 22.5 million in 1979 to 10.2 million in 1990. Despite decreased demand, the profit margin for marijuana not only fueled Mexican trafficking organizations, but led to an increase in domestic marijuana cultivation—particularly indoor-grow operations producing high-potency marijuana.
Synthetic drugs, especially methamphetamine, continued to be primarily produced domestically. In the early 1990s, high-purity “ice” methamphetamine (80- to 90-percent pure methamphetamine with a crystalline appearance) appeared on the West Coast. In addition to domestic production, primarily in California, ice was supplied from laboratories in South Korea and the Philippines. OMGs dominated the production of methamphetamine through the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s, however, Mexican drug trafficking organizations started large-scale production and trafficking of methamphetamine. The introduction of high-quality, low-priced methamphetamine undercut the monopoly once held by outlaw bikers. Some OMGs, including the Hells Angels, reportedly relied upon Mexico-based sources of supply for their methamphetamine, preferring to avoid the risks associated with the manufacture of the drug. A sharp decrease in the purity of Mexican methamphetamine at the end of the 1990s reportedly pushed OMGs back into drug production.
LSD and PCP remained available throughout the 1990s. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) also called Ecstasy, gained popularity among young, middle-class college students in limited areas of the United States. Ecstasy use and availability greatly escalated in 1997 when clandestine laboratories, operating in Europe, began exporting significant quantities of MDMA tablets to distributors in the United States.
Drug Threat Assessment 2002
Regional Abuse Patterns
Most DEA field divisions continue to identify cocaine as the primary illicit drug of concern, based upon abuse indicators, the violence associated with the trade, and/or the volume of trafficking through their areas of responsibilities. Heroin remains readily available in major metropolitan areas. despite the availability of high-purity white heroin, which can be snorted, abuse appears to have stabilized in recent years. Methamphetamine trafficking and abuse dominate the West Coast and much of the Rocky Mountain and Midwest regions of the country. Polydrug trafficking along the Southwest border continues to tax allocated resources, and cocaine remains the drug of choice along the Atlantic seaboard.
Smuggling Patterns
The Southwest border remains the most vulnerable region of the United States for border security, followed by the Gulf Coast. Interagency assessments report over 60 percent of the cocaine entering the United States moves across the Southwest border. The U.S. Customs Service identified an increase in the movement of drugs between ports of entry over the last several years, as well as a trend toward smaller drug loads. EPIC reports that traffickers have not changed smuggling methods or routes following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Although the transportation centers are likely to be located near the border, the command and control centers could operate from nearly any location in the United States. Mobile communications and internet encryption allow Drug Trafficking Organizations (DTOs) to operate from remote locations.
Availability
The 9-percent decline in cocaine purity over the past 4 years illustrates a vulnerability of crop-based illicit drugs. One possible explanation for the increased use of cutting agents by Colombian DTOs is the expansion of the non-U.S. drug market beyond the traffickers’ means to maintain world supplies. Cocaine and heroin production are limited not only by the same factors that affect any agricultural product, but also by the traffickers’ abilities to either control production regions or to thwart government crop eradication efforts. Supplies of synthetic drugs, such as methamphetamine, MDMA or Ecstasy, PCP, and LSD are not limited by these same factors. The traffickers’ capability to quickly move production sites of synthetic drugs presents a significant challenge to law enforcement authorities.
Cocaine
Colombian drug trafficking organizations increasingly rely upon the eastern Pacific Ocean as a trafficking route to move cocaine to the United States. Law enforcement and intelligence community sources estimate that 72 percent of the cocaine shipped to the United States moves through the Central America-Mexico corridor, primarily by maritime conveyance. Fishing vessels and go-fast boats are used to move multiton cocaine loads to Mexico’s west coast and Yucatan Peninsula. The loads are subsequently broken down into smaller quantities for movement across the Southwest border. Despite the shift of smuggling operations to the eastern Pacific, the Caribbean corridor remains a crucial smuggling avenue for Colombian cocaine traffickers. Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti are the predominant transshipment points for Colombian cocaine transiting the Caribbean.
Traffickers operating from Colombia continue to control wholesale level cocaine distribution throughout the heavily populated northeastern United States and along the eastern seaboard in cities such as Boston, Miami, Newark, New York City, and Philadelphia. There are indications that other drug trafficking organizations, especially Mexican and Dominican groups, are playing a larger role in the distribution of cocaine in collaboration with Colombian organizations. Mexican drug trafficking organizations are increasingly responsible for the transportation of cocaine from the Southwest border to the New York market. Mexico-based trafficking groups in cities such as Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Houston, Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Diego, San Francisco, and Seattle now control the distribution of multiton quantities of cocaine.
Heroin
The Office of National Drug Control Policy’s publication, Pulse Check: Mid-Year 2000, reports new heroin users continue to be attracted to high-purity Colombian heroin because it can be snorted rather than injected. Reports of Mexico-produced white heroin continue to surface. Although heroin abuse indicators are stable, the increasing purity of Mexican heroin, as well as ready supplies of high-purity white heroin, may result in geographic “pockets” of overdoses as seen in Chimayo and Espanola, New Mexico, in the late 1990s. The high rate of overdose in these locations served as the initial impetus for Operation TAR PIT, which identified the operations of a Mexico-based heroin distribution organization that operated throughout the western United States and in sections of the Midwest.
Marijuana
Marijuana trafficking is prevalent across the nation, with both domestic and foreign sources of supply. Lax public attitudes regarding marijuana’s effects, the high seizure threshold required for federal prosecution, and various state legalization efforts undermine public support of law enforcement endeavors. The Houston Field Division reports that some Mexican DTOs use marijuana as a “cash crop”; the proceeds are used to cover the expenses associated with the trafficking of other drugs. Multiton seizures of marijuana have had a negligible effect on street prices and availability. Moreover, the increased availability of high-quality sinsemilla and a new generation of marijuana users are threats that cannot be ignored.
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine, from either foreign or domestic sources, is available in nearly every DEA field division. Large-scale methamphetamine laboratories, located primarily in the western United States, and to a lesser extent in Mexico, provide the majority of the drug. However, even the smaller clandestine laboratories pose a significant public health and safety threat. The majority of the small toxic laboratories are not connected to large-scale drug trafficking organizations. “Super labs” (laboratories capable of producing in excess of 10 pounds of methamphetamine in one 24-hour production cycle), however, are generally funded and supplied by larger DTOs. An increase in the number of super labs in the Midwest suggests an increased demand for methamphetamine. The increased availability of methamphetamine in urban environments, especially the indications that the drug is occasionally sold in conjunction with, or in place of, club drugs such as MDMA, may usher in a new generation and class of drug abuser. The appearance of Southeast Asian methamphetamine tablets in the United States further threatens to introduce the drug as a substitute for, or supplement to, MDMA, although intelligence reporting on this issue suggests the availability of methamphetamine tablets is isolated. Since methamphetamine laboratories can operate in nearly any remote location, either foreign or domestic, identifying production sources poses a substantial challenge for law enforcement assets at the local, state, and federal levels. One response to the growing problem of clandestine laboratories has been the creation of the National Clandestine Laboratory Database maintained by EPIC. Prior to the creation of this database, there was no reliable system capable of obtaining clandestine laboratory seizure information from state or local investigations. EPIC’s database provides a valuable instrument for both strategic assessments and a clearinghouse for investigative intelligence.
MDMA
Both field division and epidemiology reports identify club drugs, most notably MDMA, as a significant threat. The increase in domestic MDMA production, although still limited by stringent precursor chemical controls, further illustrates the profitability of this drug. Although the majority of MDMA production takes place in the Netherlands, and to a lesser extent in Belgium, the transferability of the laboratories adds a dynamic to the drug trade that cannot be addressed at this time. Laboratories can be relocated to any nation in the European Union, Eastern Europe, or the former Soviet Union, as long as precursor chemicals can be obtained and transported.
Post-September 11, 2001 Assessment
The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States introduced a new set of variables to drug threat assessments: the reallocation of law enforcement, intelligence, and military assets from counternarcotics to counterterrorism reduces available enforcement assets, yet brings a concurrent strengthening of national borders. If history serves as a guide, DTOs will continue to identify and exploit vulnerabilities in order to maintain a steady supply of drugs to the illicit drug market in the United States.
This report was prepared by the DEA Intelligence Division, Office of Domestic Intelligence, Domestic Strategic Unit. This report reflects information received prior to May 2002.
dea.gov: INDIA: COUNTRY BRIEF January 2004
http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/03080/03080.html
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
Office Responsible: New Dehli Country Office
Type of Government: Federal Republic
Official Name: Republic of China
Capital: New Dehli
Population: 1,049,991,145 (July 2003 Estimate)
STATUS IN INTERNATIONAL DRUG TRAFFICKING
India is the world’s largest producer of licit opium; however, a portion of the licit opium poppy crop is diverted to the illicit market. Opium, obtained both through diversion and from illicit poppy cultivation, is processed into heroin in India. The type of heroin that is most often found in India is a crudely refined heroin base called “brown sugar.”
India’s large chemical industry produces a wide variety of precursor and essential chemicals, including acetic anhydride (AA), potassium permanganate (PP), ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and other chemicals used to produce amphetamine-type stimulants.
India serves as a minor source country for heroin, and also serves as a transit area for Southwest Asian (SWA) heroin from Afghanistan that often enters India from Pakistan. The transit of Southeast Asian (SEA) heroin from Burma is not believed to be significant. Heroin from Burma is used primarily within the addict population of northeastern India.
India’s large population contains a significant number of drug abusers, although precise estimates are not available. Heroin, hashish, and pharmaceutical drugs are readily available and widely abused. Brown sugar heroin is primarily produced for domestic heroin users, since there is little market for this type of heroin outside of India.
CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING
Cannabis
Cannabis cultivation is illegal, yet widespread, in India. No estimates as to the size of this illicit cultivation are available. Both marijuana and hashish are processed in India. The Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh is known to produce marijuana with a high delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content, which makes the marijuana attractive to foreign hashish buyers.1 However, the majority of India-produced marijuana and hashish is for domestic use, although a small percentage is destined for the international market.
Ephedra
The active alkaloid for the precursor chemical ephedrine is chemically extracted from the ephedra plant and processed for pharmaceutical purposes. There are at least 30 different species of the ephedra plant found throughout Asia, Europe, and North America. There are only five species of the plant that are capable of producing useable quantities of ephedrine. These five species are found in China, India, Mongolia, and Pakistan. India and China are major producers of ephedrine.
Opium
India is the largest producer of opium gum for the world’s pharmaceutical industry. In 2002, India produced 820 metric tons of opium gum from 18,447 hectares of opium poppy. In 2001, India produced only 726 metric tons of opium gum, which was a decrease from the 1,302 metric tons of opium gum produced in 2000. India is the only country that permits the legal extraction of opium gum, rather than using the concentrate obtained from the poppy straw (CPS) processing method.
Analyst Note: In the CPS process, poppy pods are dried on the stalk in the fields, and then crushed in order to remove the seeds. The seeds are used for a food product and the crushed pods are processed to extract the alkaloids. In India, however, farmers lance poppy pods in the fields to remove the opium. Farmers then sell the collected opium gum to the government.
Licit Opium Cultivation
In 1981, the United States applied the “80-20 rule” to guarantee that India and Turkey (also a traditional opium producer) have a combined 80 percent share of the U.S. pharmaceutical market’s annual purchase of morphine. The 80-20 rule reflected the realities of the morphine market in 1981 when Australia, France, and other licit producers were considered new or nontraditional producers, and provided less than 20 percent of global production. While India and Turkey still share 80 percent of the U.S. market, they now share closer to half of the global market. The 80-20 rule will remain in effect until January 2006, at which time it may be extended, modified, or discontinued.
Licit opium poppy cultivation is a labor intensive and locally dispersed industry in India. Opium poppy cultivation is permitted under government control in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. The Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN), which is part of the Department of Revenue, is responsible for all facets of the opium industry. The CBN monitors the industry to prevent diversion, determines the number of licensed growers and areas of cultivation, and supervises collection of opium gum from farmers. The CBN operates two processing centers, one in Madhya Pradesh and the other in Uttar Pradesh. These processing centers purify, dry, weigh, and package the opium. If farmers divert opium to the illicit market, they can lose their licenses to cultivate opium and are subject to fines and imprisonment.
The exact amount of licit opium diverted to the illicit market is unknown. However, the most frequently reported estimates indicate that from 10 to 30 percent of the licit crop may be diverted. Using these estimates, diversion from the 2002 opium crop ranged from 80 to 250 metric tons, which means more illicit opium could have been available in India than in other opium cultivating countries such as Colombia, Mexico, or Laos. Since 2001, the United States and India have collaborated on a study that enables the Government of India to better estimate diversion. In 2003, the joint licit opium poppy survey will improve the scientific basis to determine a minimum-qualifying yield, which is the figure that farmers must meet when turning in opium gum to the Government of India. When minimum-qualifying yields are not met, the Indian Government has a basis for investigating the discrepancy. However, India’s large geographic area and the scope of opium cultivation hamper enforcement efforts in the country.
Illicit Opium Cultivation
Illicit opium cultivation also occurs in India. The Indian Government began eradication efforts in northeast India in 1996, due to increased illicit cultivation. Illicit cultivation occurs in the States of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh, as well as Arunachal Pradesh and other parts of northeastern India. Indian officials pursue detection and destruction of illicit opium crops and the prosecution of illicit cultivators.
Processing
Heroin
Opium is processed into heroin in illicit laboratories located in India. These laboratories generally produce a low-quality brown sugar heroin base. Heroin hydrochloride (HCl), to include “white” export-quality heroin, is also produced in India. Since 1999, there have been increases in the number and quantity of seizures of Indian white heroin. Most of this white heroin is destined for Europe. Most of the heroin bound for Sri Lanka now appears to be the brown sugar heroin.
Methaqualone
India is the world’s largest producer of illicit methaqualone. Methaqualone is one of three categories of depressants, and is usually marketed under the brand name Mandrax. Large seizures of Mandrax are common. For example, in September 2000, more than 2 metric tons of Mandrax powder were seized near Hyderabad. In February 2001, 1.4 metric tons of Mandrax tablets were seized in Bombay. Although methaqualone laboratories and tablet-pressing operations have been seized in South Africa, India remains the major source for a substantial amount of the Mandrax found in South Africa. Most of the India-produced Mandrax originates in the Gujarat or Maharashtra States and is usually shipped by maritime containerized cargo to locations, such as South Africa, which have serious Mandrax abuse problems.
Trafficking
Heroin
The United States remains a minor market for heroin from India, whether it has been produced in, or has transited through, India. Heroin produced in India is trafficked to international locations, although the total amount is negligible, compared to the quantities of heroin produced in Burma, Afghanistan, or Colombia. The most common type of heroin, brown sugar, produced in India has a limited market outside the region. However, seizures of shipments en route to, and within, Sri Lanka suggest that there is an external regional market for heroin produced in India.
Precursor Chemical Production and Diversion
Precursor chemicals, such as AA, N-acetylanthranilic acid (N-AAA), ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, ergotomine, egonovine, PP, methylendioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MD2P2), phenyl acetone (P2P) and others, are legally manufactured in India. Indian officials fully control access to a number of chemicals, such as AA, N-AAA, ephedrine, and pseudoephedrine, but do not control all 23 chemicals listed in the annex of the 1988 United Nations (U.N.) Convention. India is an active participant in Operations TOPAZ and PURPLE, which are international initiatives designed to prevent the diversion of AA and PP.
Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine produced in India are legally exported to many countries, including the United States, Canada, Germany, and Mexico. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine can also be used for the illicit production of methamphetamine. In 1999, Indian law was amended to include controls on ephedrine. Ephedrine diverted for illicit use is most often traced to the companies that use it to produce pharmaceutical drugs, rather than to licensed ephedrine producers or wholesalers.
There are at least 12 legal producers of AA in India. AA is used to produce licit pharmaceutical drugs, and it is also employed in the textile industry. Although India is currently producing an estimated 35,000 metric tons of AA, it has the capacity to produce an estimated 90,000 metric tons of AA annually. AA is the most commonly used chemical to convert morphine into heroin, and can be used to synthesize the methaqualone precursor N-AAA and the methamphetamine and amphetamine precursor, 1-phenyl-2-propanone. Despite governmental controls, India-produced AA continues to be seized en route to Afghanistan’s heroin laboratories, and to Burma’s methamphetamine and heroin laboratories.
Trafficking Groups
Trafficking groups operating in India include nationals from India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nepal. Although India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are no longer combined into one country, as they were prior to 1947, family connections remain strong in the region, and provide a network of contacts that facilitate cross-border trafficking.
Nigerian traffickers are present in India, particularly in Delhi. In some instances, Nigerian-controlled couriers transit through India en route to international destinations. This is an effort to avoid law enforcement authorities at the destination airport, as passengers who arrive from major drug-producing or transit countries are subject to greater scrutiny. Pakistani officials continue to arrest couriers who are ticketed to India at airports in Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad. In other cases, West African traffickers reside in India and domestically sell heroin and hashish to other Africans and Indians.
There are only two authorized border crossings on India’s otherwise porous northeastern border with Burma. This region is connected to the rest of India by a 32-kilometer strip of land, bordered by Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Burma. This region is home to insurgent groups, and reporting suggests that, while these groups are not involved in drug production or drug trafficking, they may profit from some aspects of the drug trade. For example, several groups in Nagaland, including the Isaac-Muivah and Khaplang factions of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland, tax and extort money from traffickers in return for protection or the right to traffic drugs. These groups in Nagaland are of Tibeto-Burmese ethnic origin. Nagas live in remote parts of northwest Sagaing District in Burma, and in the State of Nagaland in India. The People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak, a leftist group headquartered in Manipur, and the All Tripura Tribal/Tiger Force in Tripura are other groups that profit from extortion, and they may facilitate cross-border drug trafficking.
Analyst Note: The collective term Naga is used for the many tribes that live in this region. They speak different and mutually unintelligible dialects.
Ethnic Tamils in the southern Indian State of Tamil Nadu are involved in trafficking between India and Sri Lanka, an independent island off the southern coast of India. Heroin destined for Sri Lanka is regularly seized in India and in the Gulf of Mannar. Some reports suggest that the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a Sri Lankan separatist group, receives funding from drug trafficking, although no direct nexus between the LTTE and drug trafficking has been confirmed.
Ethnic Indian organized crime syndicates, such as the organization headed by Dawood Ibrahim, are reportedly involved in a variety of illicit activities, such as extortion, drug trafficking, money laundering, counterfeiting, and terrorism. Dawood Ibrahim is currently considered a fugitive by the Indian Government, which is seeking him for his connection to 1993 Mumbai (Bombay) stock-market bombings.
Trafficking Methods and Routes
India is a transit country and a destination for heroin and hashish originating in neighboring Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Although the border is closely monitored and tensions remain high between India and Pakistan, opiates continue to enter India overland from Pakistan. Sea and air routes are also used to bring heroin from southern Pakistan. An unknown percentage of this heroin remains in India, but some also transits India en route to international destinations, especially from New Delhi or Bombay by couriers traveling on commercial airliners. Little information is available on heroin and hashish smuggling by sea, although both are believed to occur.
Drug-related Money Laundering
India is not considered an international or regional financial center, but money laundering does occur in the country. The primary means of money laundering in India is the informal banking system known as the hawala. Hawala is an underground banking network composed of businesses that engage in international commerce. Through these businesses, large sums of money can be transferred internationally with little paperwork and no physical movement of funds.
The events of September 11, 2001, and the December 13, 2001, attack on the Indian Parliament caused a flurry of anti-money laundering activity in the Indian Parliament in late 2001. In November 2001, the Indian Parliament passed the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance, which provides law enforcement more tools to seize the financial assets of organizations linked to terrorist and drug trafficking activities. In November 2002, Parliament passed the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, which significantly increases the fines and jail time for individuals convicted of money laundering. The Prevention of Money Laundering Act was signed into law in January 2003, by the President of India.
Drug Abuse and Treatment
Drugs of Choice
Marijuana, heroin, and domestically produced pharmaceutical drugs are the most frequently abused drugs in India. Marijuana products, often called charras (hashish), ganja (marijuana), or bhang (crushed marijuana) are abused throughout the country. In fact, in some parts of India, crushed marijuana is used to season foods and spice drinks during religious ceremonies and on holidays. Cocaine, d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and 3, 4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) are available, but not widely used due, in part, to their high cost.
Heroin is readily available in India. Most users smoke brown sugar heroin by breathing in the smoke from heroin burning in a dish rather than in a pipe (a process known as “chasing the dragon”). In the northeast, high-purity, low-cost heroin from Burma dominates. Intravenous drug use is highest in northeastern India. In addition to heroin abuse, the intravenous injection of proxyvon is also a problem in the States of Manipur and Mizoram. Proxyvon is a legally produced analgesic and opium derivative. Users inject a suspension of proxyvon powder and water, which leads to a very short, yet intense, high. Other pharmaceutical drugs are also abused. Opium derivatives, such as buprenorphine, diazepam, and codeine can be easily obtained from pharmacies, even though prescriptions are required. Phensidyl is heavily abused in the Indian State of West Bengal.
Addict Population
The exact number of drug abusers in the country is not known. India is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of approximately 1,049,991,145 people (July 2003 estimate). Drug abuse is widespread throughout the country. From 1999 to 2001, the Government of India and the U.N. Office of Drugs and Crime conducted a nationwide study of drug addiction. The study focused on a variety of situations, location, and subject criteria (4,648 drug users). The study concluded through multiple pages of statistics, trends, and interviews that drug abuse in India led to a variety of problems for India, such as an increased burden on the health care system.
Treatment and Demand Reduction Programs
India pursues multiple approaches to deal with drug issues. A high level of social and official awareness is evident, especially on issues such as demand reduction, rehabilitation, and detoxification. Due to a large number of local government initiatives, especially in areas in and around Calcutta, strong demand reduction programs have been implemented.
Drug Law Enforcement Agencies and Legislation
The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) was established in 1986 and is responsible for coordinating counterdrug activities for all of India’s law enforcement agencies. The NCB had been under the Ministry of Finance, but was transferred to the Home Ministry in April 2002.
The CBN is staffed with approximately 1,600 personnel and is responsible for all aspects of the opium industry and preventing illicit precursor chemical trafficking. The Directorate of Revenue Intelligence is part of the Ministry of Finance and is responsible for information on the smuggling of goods, including drugs into, or out of, India.
Other law enforcement agencies with counterdrug responsibilities in India are the Central Bureau of Investigation, the Customs Commission, and the Border Security Force. The Customs Commission has a wide variety of drug law enforcement tasks and falls under the Ministry of Finance’s Central Board of Excise and Customs. The Border Security Force, under the Home Ministry, is a paramilitary force that controls India’s land borders and frequently interdicts drug shipments.
In October 2001, the Indian Government amended the Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Drug Act of 1985. The most significant amendments include changing the law to allow for sentencing to be based on the size of the drug seizure, and formally authorizing controlled deliveries inside and outside of India. Prior to these changes, individuals found with small amounts of illicit drugs were subject to the same penalties as large-scale drug traffickers.
Treaties and Conventions
India has bilateral agreements on drug trafficking with 13 countries, including Pakistan and Burma. Prior to 1999, extradition between India and the United States occurred under the auspices of a 1931 treaty signed by the United States and the United Kingdom, which was made applicable to India in 1942. However, a new extradition treaty between India and the United States entered into force in July 1999. The United States and India signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in October 2001. India also is signatory to the following treaties and conventions:
Member of the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL);
Member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC);
1961 U.N. Convention on Narcotic Drugs;
1971 U.N. Convention on Psychotropic Substances;
1988 U.N. Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances;
1987 SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism;
1993 SAARC Regional Convention on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances; and
2000 Transnational Crime Convention.
Statistical Tables
Drug Prices in India as of Decembe 2002
Heroin (kilogram) $1,666-$6,251
Opium (kilogram) 166-312
Hashish (kilogram) 145-312
Methaqualone (kilogram) 208
Acetic Anhydride 1.45
Source: DEA New Dehli
Key Judgments
India will continue to be a major supplier of chemicals diverted to the illicit market. India actively seeks to control diversion and cooperates effectively with other countries. Even though Indian officials control access to a number of chemicals (such as AA, N-AAA, ephedrine, and pseudoephedrine), they do not yet control all 23 chemicals listed in the annex of the 1988 U.N. Convention. Despite governmental controls, India-produced AA continues to be seized both en route to Afghanistan’s heroin laboratories and to Burma’s methamphetamine and heroin laboratories. Although India is currently only producing an estimated 35,000 metric tons of AA, it has the capacity to produce an estimated 90,000 metric tons of AA annually. India’s continued active participation in Operations TOPAZ and PURPLE is vital to the international initiatives, which were designed to prevent the diversion of AA and PP.
India’s large population remains at risk for increased drug abuse, due to availability and low cost of both domestically produced drugs and drugs smuggled from the nearby countries of Burma, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The Indian Government is actively seeking ways to reduce demand and to increase public awareness.
This report was prepared by the Europe, Asia, Africa Strategic Intelligence Unit of the Office of Strategic Intelligence. This report reflects information received through October 31, 2003.
Forums›Drugs›Drugs Research, Drugs Studies & Media Requests
We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it.YesNoPrivacy policy
You can revoke your consent any time using the Revoke consent button.Revoke cookies
